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Effect of Additive Manufacturing Parameters on 316L Mechanical and Corrosion Behavior
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要約 at IgMin Research

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Biology Group Research Article 記事ID: igmin322

Accessible H2O on Mars – A Critical Review of Current Knowledge

Hydrology DOI10.61927/igmin322
Donald Rapp * 1 and
Vassilis Inglezakis 2
Affiliation

Affiliation

    1Independent Researcher, 1445 Indiana Avenue, South Pasadena, CA 91030, USA

    2Department of Chemical & Process Engineering, University of Strathclyde, 75 Montrose Street, Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK

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要約

Here, we review what is known about the distribution of accessible H2O on Mars. While “Accessible” in this review implies within about 5 m of the surface, at an elevation at least 2 km lower than the MOLA Datum, and at a latitude within ±20°, possibly extendable to ±30°, we have extended our review to cover observations of  H2O at moderate depth within the latitude range ±60°. 
Twenty years ago, the neutron spectra and initial ice stability models suggested that ground ice on Mars was likely to be rare equatorward of about 50° latitude. Since then, observation after observation from orbit (using radar, photography and spectroscopy) revealed the likely presence of huge amounts of imbedded ice within the subsurface of Mars, at various depths mostly at so-called “mid-latitudes”. As a result, the pendulum has swung to the point that some enthusiastically suggest that ground ice occurs almost everywhere on Mars. We reviewed the various observations and analyses regarding H2O on Mars. Near-surface ice has been observed, spectra and radar have implied, and ground features have been interpreted to indicate that in wide areas of Mars, shallow ice apparently occurs at latitudes greater than 40° and at a few locations, persists into the 30s. The depths of such putative ice are not well known. Further study with much higher resolution might possibly reveal shallow ice at lower latitudes in unique locations. Mineral hydrates might offer a possible alternative as a supply of H2O.

数字

Comparison of insolation on a horizontal surface summed over a Martian year at the equator (0) with a high southern latitude (80°S) and a high northern latitude (80°N). Red arrows show flow of H2O vapor from high latitude toward the equator and blue arrows show return of H2O vapor from equatorial region to high altitudes [5]. Provided by D. Rapp. Figure 1: Comparison of insolation on a horizontal surface s...
Minimum depth to stability of ground ice vs. latitude for various Mars obliquities (a) upper figure: for bright dusty ground, and (b) lower figure: for dark rocky ground. Adapted from Figure 1 of Chamberlain and Boynton [7]. Figure 2: Minimum depth to stability of ground ice vs. latit...
Approximate interpretation Figure 10 of Chamberlain and Boynton [8]. The curves show the extent of ice stability for two levels of obliquity. Figure 3: Approximate interpretation Figure 10 of Chamberlai...
Global variation of water content in upper ~ 1 m of Mars based on a uniform regolith model (no layers) using epi-thermal neutron data. Adapted from Figure 4 of Feldman, et al. 2004 [5,19]. Figure 5: Global variation of water content in upper ~ 1 m o...
Simplified version of updated plot of Mars Odyssey data. Adapted from data in Figure 7 of Butcher [22]. Figure 6: Simplified version of updated plot of Mars Odyssey...
Water equivalent hydrogen maps, measured by collimated FREND/DSEN. (a) Upper map is collimated for maximum resolution (200 km). (b) Lower map is omni directional (550 km). Black and white isolines correspond to WEH values. Adapted from Figure 2 of Malakahov, et al. [26]. Figure 7: Water equivalent hydrogen maps, measured by collim...
Enhanced segments of the global map shown in Figure 7, showing details of three areas with most water content: Arabia Terra (top left), Medusa Fossae (top right) and Arcadia Planitia (bottom). Adapted from Figure 3 of Malakahov, et al. [26]. Figure 8: Enhanced segments of the global map shown in Figur...
Comparison of the Arabia Terra segment of the WEH map at highest resolution to map at 200 km resolution. The small areas with WEH = 10% increase in size. Adapted from Figures 2 and 3 of Malakahov, et al. [26]. Figure 9: Comparison of the Arabia Terra segment of the WEH ...
Minimum (a) and maximum (b) Water Equivalent Hydrogen (WEH) maps accompany the mean WEH map on Figure 8 and show the range of possible values, considering the measurements uncertainties with +σ and -σ. Adapted from Figure 5 of Malakahov, et al. [26]. Figure 10: Minimum (a) and maximum (b) Water Equivalent Hydro...
The small (purple) region with observed 40.3% WEH. Adapted from Figure 1 of Mitrofanov, et al. [27]. Figure 11: The small (purple) region with observed 40.3% WEH....
Water equivalent hydrogen map, measured by collimated FREND/DSEN – collimated for maximum resolution (200 km). The small area studied by Mitrofanov, et al. [27] is superimposed as a yellow elliptical curve. Adapted from Figure 2 of Malakahov, et al. [26] and Figure 1 of Mitrofanov, et al. [27]. Figure 12: Water equivalent hydrogen map, measured by collima...
Water equivalent hydrogen map, measured by collimated FREND/DSEN – collimated for maximum resolution (200 km). The small area studied by Mitrofanov, et al. [27] is superimposed as a yellow elliptical curve. Adapted from Figure 2 of Malakahov, et al. [26] and Figure 1 of Mitrofanov, et al. [27]. Figure 13: Water equivalent hydrogen map, measured by collima...
Regions explored by Steinberg, et al. [49]. The rectangles define regions where LDA occur, the stars are where observations were made and analyzed, and the lines at DM represent traces. Adapted from Figure 1 of Steinberg, et al. [49]. Figure 14: Regions explored by Steinberg, et al. [49]. The re...
Locations of 1,203 craters, showing which were dry, which showed ice, and which might have ice. Plotted from data provided by Daubar [17]. Figure 15: Locations of 1,203 craters, showing which were dry...
Large crater at 35.1°N, 189.8°E consistent with water ice in the ejecta. Adapted from Figure 1 of Dundas, et al. [56]. Figure 16: Large crater at 35.1°N, 189.8°E consistent with ...
Near-surface ice revealed by digging on the Phoenix mission. Adapted from Reference [66]. Figure 17: Near-surface ice revealed by digging on the Phoeni...
Global map of hydrous mineral detections on Mars. Each dot indicates the position of a hydrous mineral exposure detected either by CRISM (red), OMEGA (blue) or jointly by both instruments (orange). Only one exposure is counted per CRISM observation regardless of the number of different hydrous mineral species found. Adapted from Figure 1 of Carter, et al. [79]. Figure 18: Global map of hydrous mineral detections on Mars. ...
Comparison of hydrous mineral exposures to very dusty regions (yellow to orange). . Adapted from Figure 4 of Carter, et al. [79]. Figure 19: Comparison of hydrous mineral exposures to very du...
Fraction of a year for which frost point is higher than subsurface temperature. Background shading shows regions of high thermal inertia. Mars landing sites are shown as circles. The vertical scale is latitude. Adapted from Figure 13 of Schorghofer and Aharonson [5,12]. Figure 4: Fraction of a year for which frost point is higher...

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